Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer-Europe Market Status and Trend Report 2013-2023
Report Summary
Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer-Europe Market Status and Trend Report 2013-2023 offers a comprehensive analysis on Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer industry, standing on the readers? perspective, delivering detailed market data and penetrating insights. No matter the client is industry insider, potential entrant or investor, the report will provides useful data and information. Key questions answered by this report include:
Whole Europe and Regional Market Size of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer 2013-2017, and development forecast 2018-2023
Main market players of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe, with company and product introduction, position in the Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer market
Market status and development trend of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by types and applications
Cost and profit status of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer, and marketing status
Market growth drivers and challenges
The report segments the Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer market as:
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Regional Segment Analysis (Regional Consumption Volume, Consumption Volume, Revenue and Growth Rate 2013-2023):
Germany
United Kingdom
France
Italy
Spain
Benelux
Russia
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Product Type Segment Analysis (Consumption Volume, Average Price, Revenue, Market Share and Trend 2013-2023):
2/4-pin
4/8-pin
8-pin
Other
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Application Segment Analysis (Consumption Volume and Market Share 2013-2023; Downstream Customers and Market Analysis)
Hospitals
Laboratories
Other
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Players Segment Analysis (Company and Product introduction, Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales Volume, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin):
Dynex Technologies
Biomerieux
Tecan
Tosoh
Meril Life Sciences
IASON
Bio-Rad
Awareness Technology
Arlington Scientific
Inova DX
Grifols
Molecular Devices
Drew Scientific
In a word, the report provides detailed statistics and analysis on the state of the industry; and is a valuable source of guidance and direction for companies and individuals interested in the market.
Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer-Europe Market Status and Trend Report 2013-2023 offers a comprehensive analysis on Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer industry, standing on the readers? perspective, delivering detailed market data and penetrating insights. No matter the client is industry insider, potential entrant or investor, the report will provides useful data and information. Key questions answered by this report include:
Whole Europe and Regional Market Size of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer 2013-2017, and development forecast 2018-2023
Main market players of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe, with company and product introduction, position in the Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer market
Market status and development trend of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by types and applications
Cost and profit status of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer, and marketing status
Market growth drivers and challenges
The report segments the Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer market as:
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Regional Segment Analysis (Regional Consumption Volume, Consumption Volume, Revenue and Growth Rate 2013-2023):
Germany
United Kingdom
France
Italy
Spain
Benelux
Russia
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Product Type Segment Analysis (Consumption Volume, Average Price, Revenue, Market Share and Trend 2013-2023):
2/4-pin
4/8-pin
8-pin
Other
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Application Segment Analysis (Consumption Volume and Market Share 2013-2023; Downstream Customers and Market Analysis)
Hospitals
Laboratories
Other
Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market: Players Segment Analysis (Company and Product introduction, Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales Volume, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin):
Dynex Technologies
Biomerieux
Tecan
Tosoh
Meril Life Sciences
IASON
Bio-Rad
Awareness Technology
Arlington Scientific
Inova DX
Grifols
Molecular Devices
Drew Scientific
In a word, the report provides detailed statistics and analysis on the state of the industry; and is a valuable source of guidance and direction for companies and individuals interested in the market.
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
1.1 Definition of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in This Report
1.2 Commercial Types of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.2.1 2/4-pin
1.2.2 4/8-pin
1.2.3 8-pin
1.2.4 Other
1.3 Downstream Application of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.3.1 Hospitals
1.3.2 Laboratories
1.3.3 Other
1.4 Development History of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.5 Market Status and Trend of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer 2013-2023
1.5.1 Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market Status and Trend 2013-2023
1.5.2 Regional Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market Status and Trend 2013-2023
CHAPTER 2 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY REGIONS
2.1 Market Status of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2013-2017
2.2 Consumption Market of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.2.1 Consumption Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.2.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.3 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.3.1 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Germany 2013-2017
2.3.2 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in United Kingdom 2013-2017
2.3.3 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in France 2013-2017
2.3.4 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Italy 2013-2017
2.3.5 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Spain 2013-2017
2.3.6 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Benelux 2013-2017
2.3.7 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Russia 2013-2017
2.4 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2018-2023
2.4.1 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2018-2023
2.4.2 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Regions 2018-2023
CHAPTER 3 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY TYPES
3.1 Whole Europe Market Status by Types
3.1.1 Consumption Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
3.1.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
3.2 Europe Market Status by Types in Major Countries
3.2.1 Market Status by Types in Germany
3.2.2 Market Status by Types in United Kingdom
3.2.3 Market Status by Types in France
3.2.4 Market Status by Types in Italy
3.2.5 Market Status by Types in Spain
3.2.6 Market Status by Types in Benelux
3.2.7 Market Status by Types in Russia
3.3 Market Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
CHAPTER 4 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY DOWNSTREAM INDUSTRY
4.1 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Downstream Industry
4.2 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Major Countries
4.2.1 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Germany
4.2.2 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in United Kingdom
4.2.3 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in France
4.2.4 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Italy
4.2.5 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Spain
4.2.6 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Benelux
4.2.7 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Russia
4.3 Market Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Downstream Industry
CHAPTER 5 MARKET DRIVING FACTOR ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
5.1 Europe Economy Situation and Trend Overview
5.2 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Downstream Industry Situation and Trend Overview
CHAPTER 6 AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER MARKET COMPETITION STATUS BY MAJOR PLAYERS IN EUROPE
6.1 Sales Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Major Players
6.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Major Players
6.3 Basic Information of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Major Players
6.3.1 Headquarters Location and Established Time of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Major Players
6.3.2 Employees and Revenue Level of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Major Players
6.4 Market Competition News and Trend
6.4.1 Merger, Consolidation or Acquisition News
6.4.2 Investment or Disinvestment News
6.4.3 New Product Development and Launch
CHAPTER 7 AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER MAJOR MANUFACTURERS INTRODUCTION AND MARKET DATA
7.1 Dynex Technologies
7.1.1 Company profile
7.1.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.1.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Dynex Technologies
7.2 Biomerieux
7.2.1 Company profile
7.2.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.2.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Biomerieux
7.3 Tecan
7.3.1 Company profile
7.3.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.3.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Tecan
7.4 Tosoh
7.4.1 Company profile
7.4.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.4.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Tosoh
7.5 Meril Life Sciences
7.5.1 Company profile
7.5.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.5.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Meril Life Sciences
7.6 IASON
7.6.1 Company profile
7.6.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.6.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of IASON
7.7 Bio-Rad
7.7.1 Company profile
7.7.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.7.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Bio-Rad
7.8 Awareness Technology
7.8.1 Company profile
7.8.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.8.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Awareness Technology
7.9 Arlington Scientific
7.9.1 Company profile
7.9.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.9.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Arlington Scientific
7.10 Inova DX
7.10.1 Company profile
7.10.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.10.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Inova DX
7.11 Grifols
7.11.1 Company profile
7.11.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.11.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Grifols
7.12 Molecular Devices
7.12.1 Company profile
7.12.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.12.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Molecular Devices
7.13 Drew Scientific
7.13.1 Company profile
7.13.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.13.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Drew Scientific
CHAPTER 8 UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM MARKET ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
8.1 Industry Chain of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
8.2 Upstream Market and Representative Companies Analysis
8.3 Downstream Market and Representative Companies Analysis
CHAPTER 9 COST AND GROSS MARGIN ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
9.1 Cost Structure Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.2 Raw Materials Cost Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.3 Labor Cost Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.4 Manufacturing Expenses Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
CHAPTER 10 MARKETING STATUS ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
10.1 Marketing Channel
10.1.1 Direct Marketing
10.1.2 Indirect Marketing
10.1.3 Marketing Channel Development Trend
10.2 Market Positioning
10.2.1 Pricing Strategy
10.2.2 Brand Strategy
10.2.3 Target Client
10.3 Distributors/Traders List
CHAPTER 11 REPORT CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 12 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND REFERENCE
12.1 Methodology/Research Approach
12.1.1 Research Programs/Design
12.1.2 Market Size Estimation
12.1.3 Market Breakdown and Data Triangulation
12.2 Data Source
12.2.1 Secondary Sources
12.2.2 Primary Sources
12.3 Reference
1.1 Definition of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in This Report
1.2 Commercial Types of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.2.1 2/4-pin
1.2.2 4/8-pin
1.2.3 8-pin
1.2.4 Other
1.3 Downstream Application of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.3.1 Hospitals
1.3.2 Laboratories
1.3.3 Other
1.4 Development History of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
1.5 Market Status and Trend of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer 2013-2023
1.5.1 Europe Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market Status and Trend 2013-2023
1.5.2 Regional Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Market Status and Trend 2013-2023
CHAPTER 2 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY REGIONS
2.1 Market Status of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2013-2017
2.2 Consumption Market of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.2.1 Consumption Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.2.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.3 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Regions
2.3.1 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Germany 2013-2017
2.3.2 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in United Kingdom 2013-2017
2.3.3 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in France 2013-2017
2.3.4 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Italy 2013-2017
2.3.5 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Spain 2013-2017
2.3.6 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Benelux 2013-2017
2.3.7 Market Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Russia 2013-2017
2.4 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2018-2023
2.4.1 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe 2018-2023
2.4.2 Market Development Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Regions 2018-2023
CHAPTER 3 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY TYPES
3.1 Whole Europe Market Status by Types
3.1.1 Consumption Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
3.1.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
3.2 Europe Market Status by Types in Major Countries
3.2.1 Market Status by Types in Germany
3.2.2 Market Status by Types in United Kingdom
3.2.3 Market Status by Types in France
3.2.4 Market Status by Types in Italy
3.2.5 Market Status by Types in Spain
3.2.6 Market Status by Types in Benelux
3.2.7 Market Status by Types in Russia
3.3 Market Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Types
CHAPTER 4 EUROPE MARKET STATUS AND FORECAST BY DOWNSTREAM INDUSTRY
4.1 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Downstream Industry
4.2 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Major Countries
4.2.1 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Germany
4.2.2 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in United Kingdom
4.2.3 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in France
4.2.4 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Italy
4.2.5 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Spain
4.2.6 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Benelux
4.2.7 Demand Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Downstream Industry in Russia
4.3 Market Forecast of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Downstream Industry
CHAPTER 5 MARKET DRIVING FACTOR ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
5.1 Europe Economy Situation and Trend Overview
5.2 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Downstream Industry Situation and Trend Overview
CHAPTER 6 AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER MARKET COMPETITION STATUS BY MAJOR PLAYERS IN EUROPE
6.1 Sales Volume of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Major Players
6.2 Revenue of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer in Europe by Major Players
6.3 Basic Information of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer by Major Players
6.3.1 Headquarters Location and Established Time of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Major Players
6.3.2 Employees and Revenue Level of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Major Players
6.4 Market Competition News and Trend
6.4.1 Merger, Consolidation or Acquisition News
6.4.2 Investment or Disinvestment News
6.4.3 New Product Development and Launch
CHAPTER 7 AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER MAJOR MANUFACTURERS INTRODUCTION AND MARKET DATA
7.1 Dynex Technologies
7.1.1 Company profile
7.1.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.1.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Dynex Technologies
7.2 Biomerieux
7.2.1 Company profile
7.2.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.2.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Biomerieux
7.3 Tecan
7.3.1 Company profile
7.3.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.3.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Tecan
7.4 Tosoh
7.4.1 Company profile
7.4.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.4.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Tosoh
7.5 Meril Life Sciences
7.5.1 Company profile
7.5.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.5.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Meril Life Sciences
7.6 IASON
7.6.1 Company profile
7.6.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.6.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of IASON
7.7 Bio-Rad
7.7.1 Company profile
7.7.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.7.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Bio-Rad
7.8 Awareness Technology
7.8.1 Company profile
7.8.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.8.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Awareness Technology
7.9 Arlington Scientific
7.9.1 Company profile
7.9.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.9.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Arlington Scientific
7.10 Inova DX
7.10.1 Company profile
7.10.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.10.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Inova DX
7.11 Grifols
7.11.1 Company profile
7.11.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.11.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Grifols
7.12 Molecular Devices
7.12.1 Company profile
7.12.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.12.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Molecular Devices
7.13 Drew Scientific
7.13.1 Company profile
7.13.2 Representative Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Product
7.13.3 Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer Sales, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin of Drew Scientific
CHAPTER 8 UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM MARKET ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
8.1 Industry Chain of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
8.2 Upstream Market and Representative Companies Analysis
8.3 Downstream Market and Representative Companies Analysis
CHAPTER 9 COST AND GROSS MARGIN ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
9.1 Cost Structure Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.2 Raw Materials Cost Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.3 Labor Cost Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
9.4 Manufacturing Expenses Analysis of Automatic Enzyme Sign Analyzer
CHAPTER 10 MARKETING STATUS ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC ENZYME SIGN ANALYZER
10.1 Marketing Channel
10.1.1 Direct Marketing
10.1.2 Indirect Marketing
10.1.3 Marketing Channel Development Trend
10.2 Market Positioning
10.2.1 Pricing Strategy
10.2.2 Brand Strategy
10.2.3 Target Client
10.3 Distributors/Traders List
CHAPTER 11 REPORT CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 12 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND REFERENCE
12.1 Methodology/Research Approach
12.1.1 Research Programs/Design
12.1.2 Market Size Estimation
12.1.3 Market Breakdown and Data Triangulation
12.2 Data Source
12.2.1 Secondary Sources
12.2.2 Primary Sources
12.3 Reference