The Global Market for Advanced Antimicrobial Coatings and Technologies 2023-2033

January 2023 | 383 pages | ID: GEF882DA596DEN
Future Markets, Inc.

Abstracts

The use of advanced antimicrobial coatings and technology (virucidal, bactericidal and fungicidal) has come to the fore recently due to the impact of the Covid-19 crisis, and has greatly increased demand, especially for high touch surfaces in healthcare, retail, hotels, offices and the home. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been declared one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity by the World Health Organization and is projected to be responsible for the death of 10 million people every year by 2050. Antimicrobial surface technologies are considered an important factor in limiting the spread of infectious diseases, as a form of environmental disease control.

Industry interest in these types of coatings products was previously hindered by high price, and mainly limited to food packaging and healthcare settings. However, a significant market opportunity has arisen for companies to develop advanced coatings and surface solutions that can counter the health hazards caused by bacteria and viruses for a wide range of applications.

Their use makes it possible to provide enhanced antimicrobial, antiviral, mold-reducing and TVOC degrading processes, that are non-toxic and environmentally friendly, allowing for exceptional hygiene standards in all areas of work and life. As a result, it is possible create a healthier living and working environment and to offer holistic solutions to people with a diminished immune system. Antimicrobial-based surface coatings prevent the spread of bacteria, fungi and viruses via infected surfaces of so called high-traffic objects, such as door and window handles in public places, hospitals, public buildings, schools, elderly homes etc.

Advanced Antimicrobial Coatings and Technologies have numerous applications, for virtually all surfaces including:

• Medical facilities and laboratories
• Medical equipment;
• Fabrics and clothing like face masks;
• Hospital furniture;
• Hotels and other public spaces;
• Window glass;
• Pharmaceutical labs;
• Packaging;
• Food packaging areas and restaurants;
• Food processing equipment;
• Transportation, air ducts and air ventilation systems;
• Appliances;
• Sporting and exercise equipment;
• Containers;
• Aircraft interiors and buildings;
• Cruise lines and other marine vessels;
• Restroom accessories;
• Shower enclosures;
• Handrails;
• Schools and childcare facilities;
• Playgrounds.

Report contents include:

• Current technology and materials used in Advanced Antimicrobial Coatings and Surfaces. These include self-cleaning coatings, photocatalytic coatings, graphene, silicon dioxide nanoparticles, silver/nanosilver, photocatalytic coatings, zinc oxide/zinc oxide nanoparticles, hydrogels, nanocellulose, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, gold nanoparticles, cerium oxide nanoparticles, chitosan/chitosan nanoparticles, copper particles, adaptive biomaterials, electroactive smart materials, 2D materials and antibacterial liquid metals.
• Global market revenue forecasts to 2033, broken down by applications, regions, markets and types of coatings.
• Analysis of end user markets for Advanced Antimicrobial Coatings and Technologies including:
  • Interiors
    • Stainless steel, glass, plastics and ceramic surfaces.
    • Medical facilities and sensitive building applications.
    • Air conditioning and ventilation systems.
    • Hand rails.
    • Restroom accessories.
  • Medical
    • Medical hygiene-medical devices and surface hygiene.
    • Wall coatings for hospitals.
    • Hospital furniture.
    • Medical implants.
    • Wound dressings.
    • Catheters.
    • Pharmaceutical labs.
    • Fabric supplies, scrubs, linens, masks (medical textiles).
  • Packaging
    • Food packaging.
    • Polymeric films with anti-microbial properties for food packaging.
    • Nanosilver coatings.
    • Antibacterial coatings on plastic films.
  • Textiles
    • Antibacterial cotton textiles for clothing and apparel.
    • Interior textiles.
    • Automotive textiles.
  • Food processing
    • Food preparation facilities.
    • Food packaging.
    • Food processing equipment.
  • Filtration
    • Water purification.
    • Air filtration units.
  • Other
    • Fitness equipment.
    • Water coolers and ice-making equipment.
    • Automotive interiors.
    • Reusable water bottles, coffee cups and shopping bags.
    • Consumer goods-children's toys, personal care items and appliances.
• Profiles of over 200 companies. Companies profiled include Advanced Materials-JTJ s.r.o., Axcentive SARL, Bio-Fence, Covalon Technologies Ltd., CuConcepts GmbH, EnvisionSQ, Fusion Bionic GmbH, GrapheneCA, Halomine, HeiQ Materials, Integricote, Kastus, MedicFibers, Nano Came Co. Ltd., Nanosono, NanoTouch Materials, Nanoveu, NBD Nanotechnologies, NitroPep, OrganoClick, PPG, Reactive Surfaces and Spartha Medical SAS

Contents

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Aims and objectives of the study
1.2 Market definition
  1.2.1 Properties of nanomaterials
  1.2.2 Categorization

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

3.1 Antimicrobial additives and coatings market growing
  3.1.1 Advantages
  3.1.2 Properties
  3.1.3 Applications
3.2 Nanocoatings
3.3 Antimicrobial and anti-viral coatings and surfaces
  3.3.1 Self-cleaning antimicrobial coatings and surfaces
    3.3.1.1 Bionic self-cleaning coatings
    3.3.1.2 Photocatalytic self-cleaning coatings
    3.3.1.3 Anti-fouling and easy-to-clean nanocoatings
  3.3.2 Anti-viral coatings and surfaces
  3.3.3 Nanomaterials applications
  3.3.4 Cleanliness of indoor and public areas driving demand for antimicrobials
3.4 Anti-viral coatings
  3.4.1 Reusable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
  3.4.2 Wipe on coatings
  3.4.3 Facemask coatings
  3.4.4 Long-term mitigation of surface contamination with nanocoatings
3.5 Main market players by antimicrobial technology area
3.6 Global market size and opportunity to 2033
  3.6.1 End user markets for antimicrobial coatings
  3.6.2 Global forecast for antimicrobial coatings to 2033
3.7 Market and technical challenges
3.8 Market drivers and trends

4 ADVANCED MATERIALS USED IN ANTI-MICROBIAL COATINGS

4.1 Metallic-based coatings
4.2 Polymer-based coatings
4.3 Antimicrobial nanomaterials
4.4 Organic nanoparticles
  4.4.1 Types and properties
4.5 Nanocoatings
  4.5.1 Properties of nanocoatings
  4.5.2 Benefits of using nanocoatings
    4.5.2.1 Types of nanocoatings
  4.5.3 Production and synthesis methods
    4.5.3.1 Depositing functional nanocomposite films
    4.5.3.2 Film coatings techniques analysis
    4.5.3.3 Superhydrophobic coatings on substrates
    4.5.3.4 Electrospray and electrospinning
    4.5.3.5 Chemical and electrochemical deposition
    4.5.3.6 Aerosol coating
    4.5.3.7 Layer-by-layer Self-assembly (LBL)
    4.5.3.8 Sol-gel process
    4.5.3.9 Etching
4.6 Nanosilver and silver-ion antimicrobial coatings and additives
  4.6.1 Properties
    4.6.1.1 Antiviral properties of AgNPs
  4.6.2 Mode of action
  4.6.3 Environmental and safety considerations
  4.6.4 SWOT analysis
  4.6.5 Products and applications
    4.6.5.1 Silver nanocoatings
    4.6.5.2 Antimicrobial silver paints
  4.6.6 Markets
    4.6.6.1 Textiles
    4.6.6.2 Wound dressings and medical
    4.6.6.3 Consumer products
    4.6.6.4 Air filtration
  4.6.7 Companies
4.7 Photocatalytic coatings (Titanium Dioxide)
  4.7.1 Development of photocatalytic coatings
    4.7.1.1 Market drivers and trends
  4.7.2 Mode of action
  4.7.3 Glass coatings
  4.7.4 Interior coatings
  4.7.5 Improving indoor air quality
  4.7.6 Disinfecting paints & coatings
  4.7.7 Applications
    4.7.7.1 Coatings
    4.7.7.2 Non-coatings applications
  4.7.8 Other metal based photocatalysts
    4.7.8.1 ZNO
    4.7.8.2 Bi-based photocatalysts
    4.7.8.3 Binary or Ternary sulfides
    4.7.8.4 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)
    4.7.8.5 WO3
  4.7.9 Metal free phototcatalysts
    4.7.9.1 Carbon nitride g-C3N4
    4.7.9.2 Silica carbide (SiC)
    4.7.9.3 Graphene oxide
    4.7.9.4 Transition-metal dichalcogenide MoS2
    4.7.9.5 Germanene
    4.7.9.6 Graphdiyne
    4.7.9.7 Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl)
    4.7.9.8 Black phosphorus
4.8 Zinc oxide coatings and additives
  4.8.1 Properties
  4.8.2 Mode of action
  4.8.3 Application in antimicrobial coatings
4.9 Quaternary ammonium silane
  4.9.1 Mode of action
  4.9.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.9.3 Companies
4.10 Bio-based antimicrobial coatings
  4.10.1 Chitosan
    4.10.1.1 Properties
    4.10.1.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.10.2 Antimicrobial peptide (AMP) coatings
    4.10.2.1 Properties
    4.10.2.2 Mode of action
    4.10.2.3 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.10.3 Nanocellulose (Nanocrystalline, Nanofibrillated, and Bacterial Cellulose)
    4.10.3.1 Properties
    4.10.3.2 Application in anti-microbial and anti-viral nanocoatings
  4.10.4 Adaptive biomaterials
    4.10.4.1 Properties
    4.10.4.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
4.11 Copper antimicrobial coatings and additives
  4.11.1 Properties
  4.11.2 Mode of action
  4.11.3 SWOT analysis
  4.11.4 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.11.5 Companies
4.12 Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)
  4.12.1 Properties
  4.12.2 Mode of action
4.13 Hydrogels
  4.13.1 Properties
  4.13.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
4.14 Antibacterial liquid metals
  4.14.1 Properties
4.15 Two-dimensional (2D) materials
  4.15.1 Black phosphorus (BP)
  4.15.2 Layered double hydroxides (LDHs)
  4.15.3 Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)
  4.15.4 Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)
  4.15.5 MXENE
4.16 Hydrophobic and hydrophilic coatings and surfaces
  4.16.1 Hydrophilic coatings
  4.16.2 Hydrophobic coatings
    4.16.2.1 Properties
    4.16.2.2 Application in facemasks
4.17 Superhydrophobic coatings and surfaces
  4.17.1 Properties
    4.17.1.1 Anti-microbial use
    4.17.1.2 Durability issues
    4.17.1.3 Nanocellulose
4.18 Oleophobic and omniphobic coatings and surfaces
  4.18.1 SLIPS
  4.18.2 Covalent bonding
  4.18.3 Step-growth graft polymerization
  4.18.4 Applications
4.19 Other advanced antimicrobial materials and additives in coatings
  4.19.1 Graphene
    4.19.1.1 Properties
    4.19.1.2 Graphene oxide
    4.19.1.3 Anti-bacterial activity
    4.19.1.4 Reduced graphene oxide (rGO)
    4.19.1.5 Application in antimicrobial coatings
    4.19.1.6 Companies
  4.19.2 Silicon dioxide/silica nanoparticles (Nano-SiO2)
    4.19.2.1 Properties
    4.19.2.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.19.3 Polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)
    4.19.3.1 Properties
    4.19.3.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.19.4 Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
    4.19.4.1 Properties
    4.19.4.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.19.5 Fullerenes
    4.19.5.1 Properties
    4.19.5.2 Application in antimicrobial coatings
  4.19.6 Cerium oxide nanoparticles
    4.19.6.1 Properties
  4.19.7 Iron oxide nanoparticles
    4.19.7.1 Properties
  4.19.8 Nitric oxide (NO) nanoparticles
    4.19.8.1 Properties
    4.19.8.2 Application in anti-microbial and anti-viral coatings
  4.19.9 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles
    4.19.9.1 Properties
    4.19.9.2 Application in anti-microbial and anti-viral coatings
  4.19.10 Magnesium oxide nanoparticles
    4.19.10.1 Properties
  4.19.11 Piezoelectrics

5 ENVIRONMENTAL AND REGULATORY

6 MARKETS FOR ADVANCED ANTIMICROBIAL COATINGS AND SURFACES

6.1 HOUSEHOLD AND INDOOR SURFACES
  6.1.1 Market drivers and trends
  6.1.2 Applications
    6.1.2.1 Self-cleaning and easy-to-clean
    6.1.2.2 Indoor pollutants and air quality
  6.1.3 Global market size
6.2 MEDICAL & HEALTHCARE SETTINGS
  6.2.1 Market drivers and trends
  6.2.2 Applications
    6.2.2.1 Medical surfaces and Hospital Acquired Infections (HAI)
    6.2.2.2 Wound dressings
    6.2.2.3 Medical equipment and instruments
    6.2.2.4 Fabric supplies scrubs, linens, masks (medical textiles)
    6.2.2.5 Medical implants
  6.2.3 Global market size
6.3 CLOTHING AND TEXTILES
  6.3.1 Market drivers and trends
  6.3.2 Applications
    6.3.2.1 Antimicrobial clothing
  6.3.3 Global market size
6.4 FOOD & BEVERAGE PRODUCTION AND PACKAGING
  6.4.1 Market drivers and trends
  6.4.2 Applications
    6.4.2.1 Antimicrobial coatings in food processing equipment, conveyor belts and preparation surfaces
    6.4.2.2 Antimicrobial coatings and films in food packaging
  6.4.3 Global market size
6.5 OTHER MARKETS
  6.5.1 Automotive and transportation interiors
  6.5.2 Water and air filtration

7 ADVANCED ANTIMICROBIAL COATINGS AND TECHNOLOGIES COMPANIES 205 (207 COMPANY PROFILES)

8 REFERENCES

List Of Tables

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Categorization of nanomaterials.
Table 2: Properties of nanocoatings.
Table 3. Summary for bionic self-cleaning nanocoatings.
Table 4. Market summary for photocatalytic self-cleaning coatings.
Table 5. Summary of anti-fouling and easy-to-clean coatings.
Table 6. Anti-viral nanomaterials that inactivate different types of viruses, in preclinical assays in vitro.
Table 7. Applications of nanomaterials used in Advanced Bactericidal & Viricidal Coatings and Surfaces.
Table 8. Main market players by antimicrobial technology area.
Table 9. End user markets for antimicrobial coatings.
Table 10. Total global revenues for antimicrobial coatings, 2018-2033, millions USD.
Table 11. Total global revenues for antimicrobial coatings, 2018-2033, millions USD, conservative estimate, by coatings type.
Table 12. Market and technical challenges for antimicrobial coatings.
Table 13. Market drivers and trends in
Table 14: Nanomaterials used in nanocoatings and applications.
Table 15. Types of organic nanoparticles and application in antimicrobials.
Table 16: Technology for synthesizing nanocoatings agents.
Table 17: Film coatings techniques.
Table 18. Antibacterial properties of AgNPs.
Table 19. Antiviral properties of AgNPs.
Table 20. SWOT analysis for application of nanosilver and silver-ion antimicrobial coatings.
Table 21. Markets and applications for nanosilver-based Advanced Bactericidal & Viricidal Coatings and Surfaces.
Table 22. Companies developing antimicrobial silver nanocoatings.
Table 23. Photocatalytic coatings- principles, properties and applications.
Table 24. Development of photocatalytic coatings, by generation.
Table 25. Photocatalysts used in building materials to reduce pollution.
Table 26. Properties and applications of functionalized germanene.
Table 27. Antibacterial effects of ZnO NPs in different bacterial species.
Table 28. Companies developing antimicrobial Silane Quaternary Ammonium Compounds.
Table 29. Mechanism of chitosan antimicrobial action.
Table 30. Types of antibacterial AMP coatings.
Table 31. AMP contact-killing surfaces.
Table 32. Types of adaptive biomaterials in antimicrobial coatings.
Table 33. Antibacterial applications of Cu and CuO-based nanoparticles.
Table 34. SWOT analysis for application of copper antimicrobial coatings.
Table 35. Companies developing antimicrobial copper coatings.
Table 36. Antibacterial applications of Au-based nanoparticles.
Table 37. Types of antibacterial hydrogels.
Table 38: Contact angles of hydrophilic, super hydrophilic, hydrophobic and superhydrophobic surfaces.
Table 39: Disadvantages of commonly utilized superhydrophobic coating methods.
Table 40: Applications of oleophobic & omniphobic coatings.
Table 41. Types of carbon-based nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent, their mechanisms of action and characteristics.
Table 42. Graphene properties relevant to application in coatings.
Table 43. Bactericidal characters of graphene-based materials.
Table 44. Markets and applications for antimicrobial and antiviral graphene coatings.
Table 45. Commercial activity in antimicrobial and antiviral graphene nanocoatings.
Table 46. Types of carbon-based nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent, their mechanisms of action and characteristics.
Table 47. Global antimicrobial technology regulations.
Table 48: Market drivers and trends for antimicrobial coatings in household and indoor surface market.
Table 49. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in household and indoor surfaces 2018-2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Table 50: Market drivers and trends for antimicrobial coatings in medicine and healthcare.
Table 51: Nanocoatings applied in the medical industry-type of coating, nanomaterials utilized, benefits and applications.
Table 52. Types of advanced antimicrobial medical device coatings.
Table 53. Types of advanced coatings applied in medical implants.
Table 54. Nanomaterials utilized in medical implants.
Table 55. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in medical and healthcare settings to 2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Table 56: Market drivers and trends for antimicrobial coatings in the textiles and apparel industry.
Table 57. Applications in textiles, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof.
Table 58. Advanced coatings applied in the textiles industry-type of coating, nanomaterials utilized, benefits and applications.
Table 59. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in clothing and textiles 2018-2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Table 60. Market drivers and trends for antimicrobial coatings in the packaging market.
Table 61. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in food and beverage production & packaging to 2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Table 62. Advanced coatings applied in the automotive industry.
Table 63. Applications in air and water filters, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof.
Table 64. Photocatalytic coating schematic.

List Of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Self-cleaning superhydrophobic coating schematic.
Figure 2. Principle of superhydrophilicity.
Figure 3. Schematic of photocatalytic air purifying pavement.
Figure 4. Schematic of anti-viral coating using nano-actives for inactivation of any adhered virus on the surfaces.
Figure 5. Schematic of anti-viral coating using nano-actives for inactivation of any adhered virus on the surfaces.
Figure 6. Face masks coated with antibacterial & antiviral nanocoating.
Figure 7. Global revenues for antimicrobial coatings, 2018-2033, millions USD, conservative estimate.
Figure 8. Total global revenues for Advanced Bactericidal & Viricidal Coatings, 2018-2033, millions USD, conservative estimate, by coatings type.
Figure 9: Hydrophobic fluoropolymer nanocoatings on electronic circuit boards.
Figure 10: Nanocoatings synthesis techniques.
Figure 11: Techniques for constructing superhydrophobic coatings on substrates.
Figure 12: Electrospray deposition.
Figure 13. CVD technique.
Figure 14. Schematic of ALD.
Figure 15. A substrate undergoing layer-by-layer (LbL) nanocoating.
Figure 16. SEM images of different layers of TiO2 nanoparticles in steel surface.
Figure 17. The coating system is applied to the surface. The solvent evaporates.
Figure 18. A first organization takes place where the silicon-containing bonding component (blue dots in figure 2) bonds covalently with the surface and cross-links with neighbouring molecules to form a strong three-dimensional.
Figure 19. During the curing, the compounds organise themselves in a nanoscale monolayer. The fluorine-containing repellent component (red dots in figure) on top makes the glass hydro- phobic and oleophobic.
Figure 20. Antiviral mechanism of silver nanoparticles.
Figure 21. Antibacterial modes of action of, and bacterial resistance towards silver.
Figure 22. Antibacterial activities of silver nanoparticles.
Figure 23. Titanium dioxide-coated glass (left) and ordinary glass (right).
Figure 24. Schematic of photocatalytic indoor air purification filter.
Figure 25. Schematic indoor air filtration.
Figure 26. Mechanism of photocatalysis on a surface treated with TiO2 nanoparticles.
Figure 27. Schematic showing the self-cleaning phenomena on superhydrophilic surface.
Figure 28. Schematic of photocatalytic air purifying pavement.
Figure 29. Self-Cleaning mechanism utilizing photooxidation.
Figure 30. Photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) air filter.
Figure 31. Mechanism of photocatalysis on a semiconductor particle surface for microbial treatment.
Figure 32. Schematic of photocatalytic water purification.
Figure 33. Schematic showing photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis promoted by MOFs.
Figure 34. MOF derived nanocomposites for photocatalytic applications.
Figure 35. Graphitic carbon nitride.
Figure 36. Schematic of germanene.
Figure 37. Graphdiyne structure.
Figure 38. Schematic of a monolayer of rhenium disulfide.
Figure 39. Schematic of antibacterial activity of ZnO NPs.
Figure 40. TEM images of Burkholderia seminalis treated with (a, c) buffer (control) and (b, d) 2.0 mg/mL chitosan; (A: additional layer; B: membrane damage).
Figure 41. Antimicrobial peptides mode of action.
Figure 42: Types of nanocellulose.
Figure 43. Antibacterial modes of action of, and bacterial resistance towards copper.
Figure 44. Antibacterial mechanisms and effects of functionalized gold nanoparticles.
Figure 45. Applications of antibacterial hydrogels
Figure 46: Structure of 2D molybdenum disulfide.
Figure 47: Graphitic carbon nitride.
Figure 48: (a) Water drops on a lotus leaf.
Figure 49: A schematic of (a) water droplet on normal hydrophobic surface with contact angle greater than 90° and (b) water droplet on a superhydrophobic surface with a contact angle > 150°.
Figure 50: Contact angle on superhydrophobic coated surface.
Figure 51: Self-cleaning nanocellulose dishware.
Figure 52: SLIPS repellent coatings.
Figure 53: Omniphobic coatings.
Figure 54. Antimicrobial activity of Graphene oxide (GO).
Figure 55. Hydrophobic easy-to-clean coating.
Figure 56. Mechanism of antimicrobial activity of carbon nanotubes.
Figure 57. Fullerene schematic.
Figure 58. Schematic representation of the antibacterial mechanism of cerium-based materials.
Figure 59. Piezoelectric antimicrobial mechanism.
Figure 60. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in household and indoor surfaces 2018-2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Figure 61. Nano-coated self-cleaning touchscreen.
Figure 62. Anti-bacertial sol-gel nanoparticle silver coating.
Figure 63. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in medical and healthcare settings to 2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Figure 64. Omniphobic-coated fabric.
Figure 65. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in clothing and textiles 2018-2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Figure 66. Steps during food processing and where contamination might occur from various sources.
Figure 67. Oso fresh food packaging incorporating antimicrobial silver.
Figure 68. Global market for antimicrobial coatings in food and beverage production & packaging to 2033, by revenues and types (millions USD).
Figure 69. CuanSave film.
Figure 70. Lab tests on DSP coatings.
Figure 71. Laser-functionalized glass.
Figure 72. GrapheneCA anti-bacterial and anti-viral coating.
Figure 73. NOx reduction with TioCem.
Figure 74. Microlyte Matrix bandage for surgical wounds.
Figure 75. Self-cleaning nanocoating applied to face masks.
Figure 76. NanoSeptic surfaces.
Figure 77. Nasc NanoTechnology personnel shown applying MEDICOAT to airport luggage carts.
Figure 78. Heavy bacterial recovery from untreated fiber (left) versus Ultra-Fresh antimicrobial treated fiber (right) after testing using the ISO 20743 test method (Staphylococcus aureus test organism).
Figure 79. V-CAT photocatalyst mechanism.
Figure 80. Applications of Titanystar.